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2.
Cultural-Religious Background of Palestinian Judaism
Intertestamental Literature
Sects, Parties and Classes
Scribes and Rabbis
Temple and Its Ritual
Synagogue and Its Worship
The following material draws from several sources:
Bruce, Frederick F.
New Testament History. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980
(1969).
Metzger, Bruce M. The New Testament: Its Background,
Growth, and Content. 3rd ed. Nashville: Abingdon,
2003.
Ferguson, Everett.
Backgrounds of Early Christianity.
2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.
Roetzel, Calvin J.
The World That Shaped The New Testament.
Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. |
Survey of Intertestamental Jewish Literature
During the Hellenistic Era, the Jews in Palestine and the
Diaspora wrote historical, devotional and inspirational
literature. Though this literature was and is not
universally considered canonical scripture, it is nevertheless
very useful reading for students of the NT, since it reflects
the beliefs, doctrines, outlooks and attitudes that shaped the
people and circumstances we encounter in NT literature.
The standard collection of this literature, which we call the
Apocrypha, falls under various headings and categories:
1. Historical:
1 Maccabees:
though not on a par with scripture, it is nevertheless highly
regarded by scholars as a useful and historically reliable account of the
Maccabean revolt, and a valuable source on the first generation of
Hasmonaeans (c. 100 BC).
2 Maccabees:
spans only 15 years from the ascension of Antiochus IV through Judas'
rule. It is not as respected historically as 1 Maccabees. It reads more
like propaganda than history. But the work informs on the development of
Jewish beliefs and doctrines, e.g. resurrection from the dead (c. 100 BC).
2. Legendary or Novelistic:
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Tobit:
an engaging and edifying novella about the piety, misfortunes,
adventures, and ultimate blessedness of Tobit, his wife, Anna,
their son Tobias, and Sarah, the wife he finds on his journey
under angelic protection.
Judith:
propagandistic story about a virtuous, Law-observant woman, who
deceives an archetypal enemy, beheads him while he is drunk, and
encourages her countrymen to victory (late 2nd/early 1st C. BC).
3. Didactic or Sapiental:
Wisdom of Solomon:
an example of the Alexandrian attempt to express Jewish wisdom in
philosophical terms (1st C. BC). The most famous exponent of this kind of
synthesis was Philo Judaeus (20 BC - 40 AD), a contemporary of Jesus.
Ecclesiasticus
or Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach (or just
Sirach):
another example of hellenizing Judaism (early 2nd C. BC). It is important
for our understanding of what Jews considered to be canonical scripture.
Both of these books appear to have been familiar to the NT writers.
4. Apocalyptic: this is a genre that purports to
'reveal' what mortals cannot now see:
- what is happening up in heaven, or in the future, or at the
end of time.
- attempts to reconcile God's justice with his people's present suffering.
1 Esdras:
has survived as a unit, but is thought to be three separate pieces: a
Jewish Apocalypse (3-14), from c. 1st C. AD, plus an Introduction (1-2),
and Conclusion (15-16), added by Christian scribes in 2nd C. AD.
Ezra dialogues with an angel about God's dealings with his chosen people
and all of humanity, evoking motifs, images and symbols familiar to
readers of the canonical Old and New Testament apocalyptic works, such as
Daniel and Revelation.
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There are other examples of intertestamental literature than the
Apocrypha:
- some works are called the 'Pseudepigrapha,' i.e. 'falsely titled
writings.'
- some are quite fanciful, but do shed light on contemporary attitudes and
beliefs.
- one of them, an apocalyptic work, called 1 Enoch, seems to
be cited in Jude 14.
- another, The Assumption of Moses, seems to be alluded to
in that same letter.
In summary, then, as Metzger himself says:
“the importance of the intertestamental apocryphal and pseudepigraphic
literature lies in the information that it supplies concerning the
development of Jewish life and thought just prior to the beginning of the
Christian era.
The political fortunes of the Jews from the time of the Maccabean
uprising onward; the emergence of what has been called normative Judaism,
which became characteristic of the religion of the Pharisees; the lush
growth of popular belief in the activities of angels and demons; the
growing preoccupation with the doctrine of original sin and its relation
to the ‘evil inclination’ in every person; the blossoming of apocalyptic
hopes relating to the coming Messiah, the resurrection of the body, and
the vindication of the righteous—all these subjects and many others
receive additional light from the intertestamental literature”
(Metzger 48).
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Sects, Parties, and Classes within Palestinian Judaism
Apart from the NT itself, our major source of information
regarding the sects, parties and classes in Palestine is:
Flavius Josephus (c. 37-100 AD)
- born to an aristocratic Jewish family
- comes across as conceited and opportunistic
- involved in Jewish political leadership circles
- sent to Galilee in 66/67 to organize resistance to Rome
- instead surrendered to Flavius Vespasianus
- flattered Vespasian as the 'Messiah'
- served Titus in the siege of Jerusalem
- served his Flavian patrons in Palestine and Rome
- wrote histories of the Jews and his own times
- his work is considered self-serving, yet reliable
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The major religious sects we encounter in the biblical and extra-biblical
histories all have their origins in the Hasmonaean era struggle to maintain
covenant faithfulness to God in the face of a Seleucid policy of aggressive
hellenization.
We read in 1 Maccabees 2.42:
"Then there united with them [the Maccabees] a company of
Hasideans, mighty warriors of Israel, all who offered themselves willingly
for the law."
This had been in reaction to an incident just beforehand in 1 Maccabees
2.35-38:
"Then the enemy quickly attacked them. But they did not answer them or hurl
a stone at them or block up their hiding-places, for they said, ‘Let us all
die in our innocence; heaven and earth testify for us that you are killing
us unjustly.’ So they attacked them on the sabbath, and they died with their
wives and children and livestock, to the number of a thousand people."
Evidently there were some who thought that covenant faithfulness demanded
that they not bear arms on the sabbath. But the Maccabees, with the
Hasideans, rejected this interpretation in favor of fighting. Yet
differences remained over how to proceed with their struggle against the
Seleucids. We read in 1 Maccabees 7.42:
“Then
a group of scribes appeared in a body before Alcimus and Bacchides to ask
for just terms. The Hasideans were first among the Israelites to seek peace
from them, for they said,
'A
priest from the line of Aaron has come with the army, and he will not harm
us.'"
Although, as it turned out, these Hasideans had been deceived about Alcimus'
true intentions, the passage nevertheless indicates how important the
lineage and dignity of the High Priestly office could be to the faithful,
even when officially appointed by a Gentile king (7.9).
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Without a Davidic king, the role and office of the High Priest had become
more important. Many Hasideans considered it vital that the High Priest be
descended from Zadok, High Priest under David and Solomon.
Though Mattathias was a priest, he was not of High Priestly descent, so when
Jonathan courted an alliance with the Seleucid claimant, Alexander Balas,
and accepted appointment to the High Priesthood from him (1 Macc 10.18-21),
certain Hasideans were outraged, and broke with the Hasmonaeans.
Later, when the sons of John Hyrcanus, Aristobulus I and Alexander Jannaeus,
also claimed the title, ‘king,’ though not descended from David, it was too
much for many others. Jannaeus’ despotic behavior and his persecution of one
group of former Hasideans, the Pharisees, only increased their alienation.
Sects:
The most prominent and antagonistic sects in the New Testament are:
1. Sadducees: Hasmonaean based; wealthy/aristocratic;
urbane/sophisticated; temple centered; politically pragmatic;
written Torah only; rigid interpreters
2. Pharisees: Hasidean based; more 'of the people';
'separated ones'; synagogue centered; religiously pragmatic;
written and oral Torah; flexible interpreters
3. Essenes: had withdrawn from both Hasmonaeans and
Hasideans; withdrew and lived in isolated communities; monastic,
ascetic; wilderness (some urban); hoping and waiting for
'Apocalypse Now'
Parties and Classes: There are two parties and one class to
consider:
1. The Herodians: Hasmonaean solution; political moderates; more
likely wealthy; considered 'collaborators'; work with the status quo;
motto: 'Let's compromise!'
2. The Zealots: Maccabean solution; political
radicals; more likely poor; considered 'terrorists'; fight
against the status quo; motto: 'No compromise!'
3. The 'Am Ha-Eretz (People of the Land):
considered to be 'not-really-committed Jews'; despised by almost
everybody (except Jesus); motto: 'Hey! I'm just trying to pay my
taxes.'
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Scribes and Rabbis
The prototypical scribe, who oversaw the post-exilic restoration
of Judaism is Ezra, described in scripture as, 'a scribe skilled
in the Law of Moses',
who 'had set his heart to study the law of the Lord, and to do
it, and to teach the statutes and ordinances in Israel" (Ezra
7.6, 10).
- Nehemiah 8.1-8 is a key text for the scribes
- very few people are literate (2-4% functionally literate)
- the people speak Aramaic now, not Hebrew
- scribes studied and interpreted the Law to the people
- Judea was an ancient middle eastern theocracy
- closer to Islamic Sharia law than to democracy
- scribal duties were civil as well as religious
- so scribes really were lawyers, religious and
civil
- they had a prestigious and powerful role
- addressed as rabbi, great one, master, teacher
- a fixture of the civil and religious establishment
The scribes we meet in the New Testament accounts are:
- mostly part of a system opposed to Jesus' reformation
- often—but not always—associated with the Pharisees
- often—but not always—blind and hostile to Jesus
But not all scribes are Pharisees, nor all Pharisees scribes. Some scribes
were no doubt admirable, kind and upright men, who saw their work as a
ministry to people in need.
In Mark 11.27 - 12.44, Jesus confounds and sharply criticizes the whole
Judean ruling establishment—especially the scribes. However, he also
pointedly commends an individual scribe for being 'not far from the kingdom
of God' (12.34). So, while many shared in the general blindness, apparently
not all did.
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The responsibility of the scribes was threefold:
1. the theoretical development of the Law
2. the teaching of the Law to their pupils
3. the practical administration of the Law in pronouncing
legal decisions
1. The Theoretical Development of the Law:
Scribes found a total of 613 commandments in the Torah
(Pentateuch), of which 248 were stated positively, 365
negatively, and most could seem overly general.
- the scribes' job was to make the law explicit and particular:
-
"You shall not work on the Sabbath!"
- Right ...! Well ... what exactly constitutes work?
- conscientious scribes fretted over minutiae (see Metzger's
examples)
- legalism encourages fiction and deception
- a body of legalistic case law accumulated
- the infamous (to us) Tradition of the Elders
- sometimes directly contradicted the actual intent of the law
Legalism is a common human tendency, not a Jewish one
- love has boundaries, but can we set boundaries with wisdom,
love, and grace?
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2. The Teaching of the Law to Pupils:
The Pharisees tended to think everyone should have a
professional acquaintance with the law. That is obviously
not feasible, but quality education is desirable.
- Education in scripture is at the heart of Judaism
(Christianity, too)
- they highly valued the education of children
- elementary education in synagogue schools
- basic reading/writing/arithmetic
- recognized scribes taught older students
- master-disciple relationships with a group of followers
- remember the scene of Aristotle's class in Alexander?
- heavy emphasis on rote learning and memorization
- discussion / dialogue / summary (aphorisms/maxims)
- the ideal was to reproduce the aster's teachings
- Jesus had both similarities and differences with these rabbis
- he had disciples, but he authoritatively reinterpreted
the tradition
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3. The Practical Administration of the Law in Pronouncing
Formal Legal Decisions:
It was the responsibility of the scribes to 'bind' and 'loose',
i.e. to declare certain actions either unlawful (bound) or
permissible (loosed [cf. Matt 16.19, 18.18]).
They would do this either in response to general issues, or in
judgment of specific legal cases that came before their courts.
Remember that Torah was their civil as well as religious law:
- there were local and national courts to judge cases
- local courts were held in synagogues, before at least three
judges
synagogues were civic as well as religious centers
- the national court was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem
- composed of seventy people and the High Priest
- ex-High Priests
- elders (tribal and regional aristocracy)
- scribes (mostly Pharisees, some Sadducees, too)
- had complete freedom in matters of religion
- deferred to Roman oversight in civil and capital cases
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The
Temple and Its Ritual
The Temple was one of the great unifying symbols
of Judaism.
- possession of the Temple, though, depended on possession of
the land
- the Jews had already lost their land
and temple once (597-538 BC)
The Temple was rebuilt by 515 BC, but with far
less grandeur than the first one.
Herod, prolific builder, decided to reconstruct
the Temple as his grand project.
- begun in 19 BC; finished only around AD 64; destroyed in AD 70
- the whole complex was 26 acres
- the outer court was accessible to Gentiles
- walled off within it was the Temple court proper
- death to non-Jews who trespassed
- court accessible to Jewish females
- court accessible only to Jewish males
- court/outer sanctum accessible only to priests
- inner sanctum only for God, and accessible to the High Priest
once a year
The principal ritual was the continual burnt offering, morning
and afternoon
- people and dignitaries gathered in their respective courts to
worship
- priests offered incense within the inner sanctum, as people
outside prayed in silence
- priests came out to bless the people and offer the sacrificial
lamb
- priests poured out a drink offering, while a choir of Levites
sang the daily psalm
- when public services/sacrifice ended, private
sacrifices/services could follow
- an evening service is the scene of Zechariah's experience in
Luke 8-23
The tearing of the Temple curtain at the time of Jesus' death is
significant and symbolic.
Sadducean power revolved around the Temple system, so did not
survive its destruction.
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The
Synagogue and Its Worship
There is a surprising lack of evidence about the origins of the
synagogue:
- scholars agree that Exile in Babylon would have provided the
impetus
- worship naturally focused on Torah/Prayer rather than
Temple/Sacrifice
- scribal/rabbinical function became as/more important than
priestly one
By the first century BC, synagogues are established anywhere
there are Jews
- ten adult males supplied a quorum for the formation of a
synagogue
- people were supervised by elders, services usually under lay
leadership
Synagogue layout provided one model for early churches
- two rows of pillars: central nave, two side aisles
- often built on a hill oriented toward Jerusalem
Place of honor in the synagogue was the Torah Chest
- at front on the raised platform/dais
- places for readers / leaders / speakers on dais
- prominent seats for noted members and scribes
Synagogues and the scribal/rabbinical Judaism of the Pharisees,
being adaptable, survived the destruction of the Temple, as did
the churches.
In fact, synagogues provided models not only for early Christian
communities and buildings, but also for early Christian worship,
which drew on the order and liturgy of the synagogue service.
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Customary Order of Service in a Synagogue:
a) Invitation to Prayer and Worship:
- included a leader-and-congregation responsive Blessing and
recitation of the Shema
b) Prayers or Lifting Up of Hands (cf. 1 Tim 2.8)
- Collects or Benedictions (e.g. some or all of the Eighteen
Benedictions)
- these would be led by an individual, followed by a responsive
Amen
(1 Co 14.16)
c) Readings/Lessons from the Law and Prophets
- first the Law, then the Prophets; in Hebrew with Aramaic
interpretation (Targum)
- qualified person (perhaps visitor) might exposit a passage (Lk
4.16ff., Ac 13.15)
d) Closing Benediction or Prayer
- Priestly Benediction if one was present, or a prayer led by a
lay person
Go to 3. Philosophical & Religious
Background of Greco-Roman Paganism
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